Chapter
1
An
Introduction
to
Logic
§ 1.1 STATEMENTS, NEGATIONS, CONJUNCTIONS,
DISJUNCTIONS, AND TRUTH TABLES.
The
theory of logic was developed by many different mathematicians, its roots were
laid by Aristotle, but reached a
rigorous level by the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through the work
of Boole, Frege, Whitehead, Russell, Gödel, DeMorgan, etc. It is the one of the basic building blocks
and a foundation of higher level mathematics and gives the mathematician the
power to communicate reasoned ideas and thoughts succinctly, clearly, and in an
organised manner.
Logic
is a formal study to analyze the process of arriving at conclusions based on a
given set of premises. Statements are
declaratives that are either true or false, but can not be both true and false
simultaneously. A simple statements (or prime statement or atom)
is a declarative that is either true or false, but not both and cannot be
decomposed into any shorter group of statements that would still constitute a
meaningful sentence.
Examples
of statements are: “The box is blue.” “If you go to the market, then I will go
to the sea.” Whereas, "go to the
store!" is not a statement, but a command. Indeed the first statement, “the box is blue,” is a simple
statement; whereas, the second statement ”if you go to the market, then I will
go to the sea,” is not since it is composed of a simple statement, “you go to
the market,” the simple statement, “I will go to the sea,” and is connected by
the connective, “if ð
, then à.”
An argument
is a collection of statements called premises
followed by a conclusion. The premises are statements which are
assumed true, whilst the conclusion
is a statement that may or may not follow from the given set of premises (more
on this later). So stated differently, the study of logic is a formal study to
determine if we assume all the premises to be true, does the necessarily follow
from the premises?
When a person states something to you, do
you agree that it is correct? Or do you
question it and attempt to determine if it is true or not?
For example, if one person says, "it
is raining," it is quite easy to check to see if it is true or not; yet,
it is more difficult to check to see if the following is true or not, "If
you make a 'A' on the next test, then I will give you $10.00." The statements are obvious, but will the
promise be fulfilled? We will attempt
to answer that question by the end of this section.
We must first understand the construct of
an argument, and it should be noted that it can take on many different
forms. Let us begin our discussion with
some basic definitions for compound statements and connectives. Once we understand compound statements we can then
consider arguments.
For
example, suppose we have the following:
Khalil has a red corvette. The
opposite of this statement is Khalil does not have a red corvette. The logical opposite of a statement is
called its negation. If "Khalil
has a red corvette" is symbolised by a "K," then the negation, "Khalil does not
have a red corvette," is symbolised by “Ø
K.”[1]
There are other ways to symbolise not K; for example, ~ K, - K, K¢,`K, KC
are all used in different contexts to mean not K. We shall adopt as a convention the symbol Ø K, but
interspersed in the text and exercises shall be the congruent symbols.
Also,
two statements can be joined by a connective called the conjunction, "and."
Bob is tall and Mary is blonde.
Let us symbolise the first statement, "Bob is tall," as
"B" and the second statement, "Mary is blonde," as
"M." So, we have the
statement B and M, which shall be symbolised as B Ù
M.
Suppose,
however, we had the following two statements joined by the connective called
the disjunction,
"or." Raul is a New Yorker or
Sonya is saddened at the loss of her aunt.
Let us symbolise the first statement, "Raul is a New Yorker,"
as "R," and the second, "Sonya is saddened at the loss of her
aunt," as "S." So, we have the statement R or S, which shall be
symbolised as R Ú S.
Now,
let us consider the validity of compound statements. A compound statement is a
statement such that it decomposes into simple statements and connectives. Thus, the shortest compound statement would
be of the form not X where X is a simple statement since one cannot have
connectives without statements or two simple statements without a
connective.
Let
us begin with Khalil. Suppose he has
a red corvette. So, the statement, "Khalil has a red corvette," is,
of course, true,; whereas, the statement, "Khalil does not have a red
corvette," is false. Similarly, if he does not have a red corvette, the
statement, "Khalil has a red corvette," is, of course, false,
whereas, the statement, "Khalil does not have a red corvette," is
true.
We
can represent this in the following manner using a truth table (a table
constructed by listing all possible combinations of true and false for the two
separate statements followed by the result of the combination of the two
statements by the connective):
Truth Table 1.1.1
K |
ØK |
T |
F |
F |
T |
So,
a truth table is simply a diagramme
that lists all possible truth values for the simple statements and then the
corresponding truth values for a compound statement.
Suppose
Bob is tall, and further Mary is blonde.
Then, is the statement, "Bob is tall
and Mary is blonde," true? Of course. However, suppose Bob is tall, but Mary is not blonde. Then is the statement, "Bob is tall and Mary is blonde," true? No, because the statement, "Mary is blonde," is false. Suppose Bob is not tall, but Mary is blonde. The statement, "Bob is tall and Mary is blonde," is also false for the same reason as before: one of the two conditions was false. Last, suppose Bob is not tall, while Mary is not blonde. The statement, "Bob is tall and Mary is blonde," is false because both statements are false. We can represent this in the following manner using a truth table:
Truth Table 1.1.2
B |
M |
B
Ù M |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
Now, let us consider Raul and Sonya. Suppose Raul is a New Yorker and Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt. Is the statement, "Raul is a New Yorker or Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt," true? Of course, since both are true. Consider the situation if Raul is a New Yorker, but Sonya is not saddened at the death of her aunt. Is the statement, "Raul is a New Yorker or Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt," true? Yes, because one of the two statements was true. Continuing, consider the situation if Raul is not a New Yorker, but Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt. Is the statement, "Raul is a New Yorker or Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt," true? Yes, because one of the two statements was true. Finally, consider the situation if Raul is a not New Yorker, while Sonya is not saddened at the death of her aunt. Is the statement, "Raul is a New Yorker or Sonya is saddened at the death of her aunt," true? No, for both conditions are false, therefore, the disjunction is false.
We
can represent this in the following manner using a truth table:
Truth Table 1.1.3
R |
S |
R
Ú S |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
Normally,
the first statement is symbolised by a p and the second statement is symbolised
by a q, and lower case letters are oft used; but, as you can see, this is not
important. The important part is
considering all the possible combinations of true and false and then
determining if the conjunction, disjunction, or negation is true or false.
Now
let us combine two statements with more than one connective. For example consider the statement, it is
not the case that Paul is perfect or Michael is creative. When we use the phrase, it is not the case
that , we mean that
we are negating the entire statement . Therefore, letting P be “Paul is perfect”
and letting M be “Michael is creative” we find that Paul is perfect or Michael
is creative is symbolised as P Ú
M. To negate this requires us to use
parentheses, so the statement, “it is not the case that Paul is perfect or
Michael is creative,” is symbolised as Ø
(P Ú M).
A rule to establish order of operations
is necessary at this stage of the discussion; thus, note the following (it will
be expanded later):
Highest precedence parentheses
not
or/and
and/or (from left to right only) Lowest precedence
Thus,
we can represent “it is not the case that Paul is perfect or Michael is
creative,” Ø (P Ú M), in the following
manner using a truth table:
Truth Table 1.1.4
P |
M |
P
Ú M |
Ø(P Ú M) |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
Note that the order of
operation is illustrated by the columns of the truth table. Therefore, in the construction of a truth
table we should follow the order of operations.
Now
let us combine more than two statements with more than one connective. For example consider the statement, Paul is
not perfect or Michael is creative and Lisa is lonely. Letting P be “Paul is perfect,” M be
“Michael is creative,” and L be “Lisa is lonely,” we find that Paul is perfect
or Michael is creative and Lisa is lonely is symbolised as P Ú M Ù
L. Nonetheless, note that the order of
operation requires the conjunction and disjunction to be of the same precedence
and we order from left to right. Therefore, Paul is perfect or Michael is
creative and Lisa is lonely is symbolised as (P Ú
M) Ù
L.
Also,
note that four rows for the truth table is not sufficient. There are eight ways to combine true and
false in order to represent all the possibilities for the truth of each simple
statement
Truth Table 1.1.5
P |
M |
L |
P
Ú M |
(P
Ú M) Ù L |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
Note that the statement did not properly
use punctuation. The statement, Paul is not perfect or Michael is creative and Lisa
is lonely is properly punctuated as, “, Paul is not perfect or Michael is
creative, and Lisa is lonely.” We
cannot allow for ambiguity, thus, if the statement is not properly punctuated,
we adopt the convention that punctuation follows the order of precedence.
Let
us consider a different statement, Paul is not perfect, or Michael is creative
and Lisa is lonely. Noting connectives, punctuation, and letting P be “Paul is
perfect,” M be “Michael is creative,” and L be “Lisa is lonely,” we find that Paul
is perfect, or Michael is creative and Lisa is lonely is symbolised as P Ú (M Ù
L).
The truth table is
therefore:
Truth Table 1.1.6
P |
M |
L |
M
Ù L |
P
Ú (M Ù L) |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
Note
the truth values obtained for the statement in table 6 are different than in
table 5.
Two
statements are said to be equivalent
(or synonymous, the same, or logically
equivalent) only in the instance
where the final column of the compleat truth tables are the same where the
prime statements were assigned truth values in the exact same order. Suppose the statement X is equivalent to Y,
we symbolise this as X º
Y. Two statements are said to non- equivalent in the instance where they
are not equivalent (duh). Suppose the statement X is not equivalent to Y, we
symbolise this as X Y. Finally two statements, X and Y, are said to
be logical opposites in the instance
where X º
ØY (and Y º
ØX).
As with any convention, when we wish to
symbolise not a particular property in symbol form, we slash through the symbol
to represent such a scenario.
Note,
that the negation of the conjunction Ø
(p Ù q) is equivalent to the disjunction
Øp Ú Øq (it is left as an exercise to verify). Also note, the parentheses are necessary, for the statement Ø (p Ù q) is not the same as Ø p Ù q (see truth tables 1.7 and 1.8)! This is problematic for some people for they might erroneously think the two are the same. For colloquial statements in English, this can be a problem, but for proper statements in logic it is not. Let us assign to the symbol p the simple statement “it is pouring” and assign to the symbol q the simple statement Natasha is quick. Now, the statement, it is not pouring and Natasha is quick is Ø p Ù q; whereas, the statement, it is not the case that it is pouring and Natasha is quick is, Ø (p Ù q). Since Ø (p Ù q) is equivalent to Øp Ú Øq, for many it would be clearer if one simply said, “it is not pouring or Natasha is not quick.”
Truth Table 1.1.7
P |
Q |
P
Ú Q |
Ø(P Ú Q) |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
Truth Table 1.1.8
P |
Q |
ØP |
ØP Ú Q |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
§ 1.1 EXERCISES.
1. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following statements, identify which statements are logically equivalent,
which statements are logical opposites, and which are neither:
A. Øp Ù q B. p Ù ~q
C.
p Ù ~q D. p Ù q
E. Øq Ú p F. Øp Ú q
G.
p Ù ~p H. ~ (p Ú
q)
I. ~
(p Ù q) J. p Ú
Øp
2. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following statements:
A.
p Ù q Ú p Ù r B. p Ù (q Ú p) Ù r
C.
p Ù q Ú (p Ù r) D. (p Ù q) Ú (p Ù r)
E. Øp Ù q Ú p Ù r F. p Ù ~(q Ú p) Ù r
G. p Ù q Ú H. (p Ù Øq) Ú (p Ù r)
§ 1.2 CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
Now,
let us investigate the statement, "If you make a 'A' on the next test,
then I will give you $10.00."
Let us symbolise
"if you make an 'A' on the next test as, p, and the statement "I will
give you $10.00," as q. So, we have: if p, then q. This statement is called the conditional, and is symbolised by :
p Þ q . It is also symbolised by p ® q, q Ü p, p \ q, and q ¬
p. The statement p is called the hypothesis or antecedent and the statement q is called the consequent or conclusion.
Now, on to the argument. Suppose you make
an 'A' on the next test and I give you $10.00.
Is the statement, "if you make a 'A' on the next test, then I will
give you $10.00," true? Yes, because I kept my promise. However, suppose you make an 'A' on the next
test and I do not give you $10.00. Is
the statement, "if you make a 'A' on the next test, then I will give you
$10.00," true? No, I have broken my promise to you. Next, suppose you do
not make an 'A' on the next test, but I do give you $10.00. Is the statement, "if you make a 'A' on
the next test, then I will give you $10.00," true? Yes. You have not made the 'A,' but out of the
generosity of my heart, I still provide you with the $10.00. Last, suppose you do not make an 'A' on the
next test and I do not give you $10.00.
Is the statement, "if you make a 'A' on the next test, then I will
give you $10.00," true? Yes. You
have not made the 'A,' and I do not provide you with the $10.00. The promise
still held, because you did not fulfill your part of the bargain. So, notice if the first part of the
conditional is false, it does not matter what happens in the second part- the
conditional (the promise) is true. The point of this discussion is that burden
of following through on the promise (thus, the conditional) is on me (q; the
consequent). There is no such burden on
you (p; the antecedent) since no promise was made by you. We can represent this
in the following manner using a truth table:
Truth Table 1.2.1
p |
q |
p
Þ q |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
The last two rows of the truth table
illustrate a condition called the condition of vacuous truth for a conditional.
It illustrates that when the antecedent is false the conditional is
always true. For example, “if donkeys fly, [fill in the blank],” for donkeys do not fly so you can say whatever you
wish and the conditional is true no matter what is filled in for the
blank. Note that this is the case since
the conditional cannot be shown to be false when the antecedent is false. Note also that the first and third rows of
the truth table illustrate that when the consequent is true the conditional is
always true. Hence, of prime
importance is the second row. Focus on
that row for it is the row where the conditional is false. There should never be a case where one
argues with a true antecedent implying a false consequent (though the world is
rife with examples of just such argument forms).
Recall truth table
1.1.8. Compare truth table 1.1.8 and
1.2.1. Note that these demonstrate that
p Þ q º Øp
Ú q.
There are many
variations of the wording for the conditional.
You must learn these so that you become adept at reading and listening
to mathematics.
The conditional P Þ
Q ,
P ®
Q , Q Ü
P , or Q ¬
P translates to:
(1) If P, then Q.
(2) Q, if P
(3) P hence Q
(4) Q whence P
(5) P is a sufficient condition for Q
(6) Q is a necessary condition for P
(7) P
only if Q
(8) If not Q, then not P
(9) P implies Q
(10)
Not P, or Q
(11) Q whenever P.
So, consider the conditional, “if Alexis is running,
then Blake is driving;” stated as a conditional version (1) from above would be
(in alternate wording from above):
(2) Blake drives if Alexis runs.
(3) Alexis runs hence Blake drives.
(4) Blake runs whence Alexis drives.
(5) Alexis to be running is a sufficient
condition for Blake to be driving.
(6) It is necessary that Blake drive for Alexis
to be running.
(7) Alexis runs, only if Blake drives.
(8) If Blake doesn’t drive, then Alexis does not
run.
(9) Alexis driving implies Blake runs.
(10) Alexis doesn’t run or Blake is driving.
(11) Blake drives whenever Alexis runs.
When
at least one of the prime statements in the conditional represents a group,
then the translation can be slightly different. The conditional P Þ Q translates
to:
(12) All Ps are Qs.
(13) No Ps are not Qs.
(14) All of the Ps
have the property of Q.
(15) None of the Ps
are not Qs.
For example, consider the conditional, “if that
thing is a bird, then it is an animal;” would be:
(12) All birds are animals.
(13) No birds are not animals.
(14) All of the birds have the property of being
animals.
(15) None of the birds are not animals.
Thus,
there are at least fifteen different ways to state a conditional in idiomatic
English. The student should learn the different ways to state the conditional;
understand the uses (when using plural versus singular concepts); and, be
comfortable translating from English to symbols, symbols to English, symbol
form to alternate symbol form, and from English form to synonymous English
form.
The biconditional is a compound of two
conditionals, if p, then q and if q, then p. Take, for example, p: I am happy,
and q: you are gardening. We would for
the biconditional have, "if I am happy, then you are gardening," AND,
"if you are gardening, then I am happy." This is very cumbersome, so we have an easier way to state the
biconditional: "I am happy if and
only if you are gardening."
One can see that by checking each individual conditional the p Þ q is
false only when p is true, and q is false, and the q Þ p is false only when q is true and p is
false, then combining the two conditionals with a conjunction yields the
following:
Truth Table 1.2.2
p |
q |
p
Þ q |
q
Þ p |
(p
Þ q) Ù (q Þ p) |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
Which can be simplified to:
Truth Table 1.2.3
p |
q |
p
Û q |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
by replacing (p Þ
q) Ù (q Þ p) with the
more parsimonious symbol p Û
q.
The biconditional P Û
Q or
P «
Q translates to:
(1) P if and only if Q.
(2) P iff Q (this is just a shorthand for version
1).
(3) P is necessary and sufficient for Q.
(4) P and Q are logically equivalent.
(5) If P then Q and if Q then P.
Condition (4) establishes that two statements, P
and Q, are logically equivalent in the instance where P Û Q is true for
note the only time when P Û
Q is true is when both P and Q are true or when both P and Q are false.
Since we have two more
symbols we must add them to our order of precedence
Highest precedence parentheses ( )
not ~, Ø, or ___
and/or
(from left to right) Ù Ú
conditional
Þ ®
biconditional Û « Lowest precedence
Note when two symbols of equal precedence are
connecting, then precedence is from left to right (e.g.: P Þ Q Þ R means (P Þ Q) Þ R); but
non-equal precedence does not follow
left to right but by order of precedence (e.g.: P Þ Q Ù R means P Þ (Q Ù R) and P Ù Q Þ R means (P Ù
Q) Þ R).
Various types of
statements are of interest to mathematicians. A compound statement is a tautology when the compound statement
is true for every true-false combination. A statement is a fallacy when the statement is true for at least one true-false
combination and is false for at least one true-false combination. A contradiction
is a compound statement that is false for every true-false combination for the
prime statements.
We
are interested in discerning what statement forms are tautologies, fallacies,
or contradictions so that when we begin investigating argument forms, we can
use tautologies or contradictions and avoid fallacies. A tautological
argument is that which we attempt to construct when we prove an assertion.
Finally there is one
other type of disjunction, the exclusive
disjunction, which is symbolised as
P Q. We reference this because there are times in
mathematics when we do not want to have the possibility of both conditions being
satisfied but wish to have one or the other exclusively satisfied.
P
or Q, but not both.
P
exclusive or Q.
P exor Q.
Truth Table 1.2.4
p |
q |
p
q |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
Note that P Q is the logical
opposite of P Û Q.
§ 1.2 EXERCISES.
1. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following statements, identify which statements are logically equivalent,
and which statements are logical opposites:
A. Øp Ù q B. p Þ
q
C. Øp ® Øq D. p Ü
q
E.
p Ù ~q F. p Û
Øq
G.
p Ù q H. Øq Ú p
I. Øp Ú q J. Øp ® q
K. Øq ® Øp L. q ® p
M. Øq Þ q N. p Ù ~p
O. p Þ p P. ~ (p Ú
q)
Q. ~ (p Ù q) R. p ® p
2. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following statements:
A.
(p Ù Øq) Ú (p Ù r) B. p Þ q Ú p Ù r
C.
p Ù (q ® p) Ù r D. p ® q Ú (p Ù r)
E.
(p Ù q) Þ (p Ù r) F. (p Ù q) Þ p
G.
(p Ù q) Þ q H. (p Ú q) Þ p
I.
(p Ú q) Þ q J. p Þ p Ú q
K.
q Þ p Ú q L. q Þ p Ú q Ú r
3. Let p be "it is foggy" and q be
"it is cold."
Translate each of the following into symbolic
logic.
A. It is foggy or it is cold.
B. It is not foggy and it is not cold.
C. If it is foggy, then it is warm or hot.
D. The day being foggy is a necessary and sufficient
condition for it to be cold.
E. It is false that it is both cold and foggy.
4. Write the negation of the following in
standard colloquial written English:
A. Either we will buy ice cream or we will rent
a movie.
B. Cynthia is charming and Paul is
well-mannered.
C. It is false that Rameses is happy and Colette
is sad.
D. Ashton is not wealthy.
5. Translate the following into symbolic form
(do not forget to define symbols representing prime statements):
A. If
this is Tuesday, we must be in Belgium.
B. It is
a bird, if it is an eagle.
C. All
people have heads.
D. She
has no cash or she has a charge plate.
E. p2
¹ 25, p = 5,
or p = -5.
F. | y +
6 | ¹ 8 and y = 2 or
y = -14.
G. If x
+ 3 = 5, then x = 1 or x = 2.
H. If z
= 1 and z = 5, then z2 + 2z + 1 = 0.
I. It
is snowing implies it is below 32°
F.
J. It
is not snowing or it is below 32°
F.
K. It is
necessary that x < 2 for x + 1 < 3.
L. If
the Mets win every game left in the season, then they will win the N. L. East.
M. Tom always
buys an Oldsmobile.
N. Sarah
buys a Toy when she is in New York.
O. No
chicken are teetotalers.
P. I
love New York.
Q. Nobody
is alone who cares for a pet.
R. Watering
grass is sufficient for grass to grow.
S. If the
butler did it, then the maid didn’t.
The butler or the maid did it.
If the maid did it, then the butler did it.
T. If
math was interesting, then I would earn an ‘A.” Math isn’t interesting. Thus, I am not earning an “A.”
U. No
alterations, redecorating, tacks, or nails shall be made in the building,
unless written permission is obtained.
V. Babies
are illogical. Nobody is despised who
can manage a crocodile. Illogical
people are despised.
W. If the
population increases rapidly and production remains constant, then prices
rise. If prices rise then the
government will control prices. I am
rich then I do not care about increases in prices. It is not true that I am not rich. Either the government does not
control prices or I do not care about increases in prices. Therefore, it is not
the case that the population increases rapidly and production remains constant.
X. Dean
praises me only if I can be proud of myself.
Either I do well in classes or I cannot be proud of myself. If I do my best in sports, then I cannot be
proud of myself. Therefore, if Dean
praises me, then I do my best in sports.
Y. If
Winston or Halbert wins then Luke and Susan cry. Susan does not cry. Thus,
Halbert does not win.
Z. If I
enroll in the course and study hard, then I will earn acceptable grades. If I
make satisfactory grades, then I am content.
I am not content. Hence, either I did not enroll in this course or I did
not study hard.
AA. If
he goes to the party, he does not fail to brush his hair. To look fascinated is necessary to be
tidy. If he is a sushi eater, then he
has no self-command. If he brushes his
hair, he looks fascinated. He wears white gloves only if he goes to the
party. Having no self-command is
sufficient to make one look untidy. Therefore,
sushi eaters do not wear white gloves.
BB. No
ducks waltz. No officer ever declined to waltz. All my poultry are ducks.
Thus, None of my poultry are officers.
CC. Everyone
who is sane can do logic. None of your
sons can do logic. No lunatics are fit to serve on the jury. Therefore, if he is your son, then he is not
on the jury.
DD. The
sum of an irrational number and a rational number is an irrational number.
EE. The
product of two negative numbers is a positive number.
FF. The
square root of a positive number is a positive number.
GG. only if .
HH. If then .
II. The
square of a negative number is a positive number.
JJ (dyn-o-mite!). a3 = 8, b = 3, and
c = 1.
KK. 7 < 3 and 5 > 4, or 2 = 1.
LL. a2
+ b2
= g2
whence a
= 3, b = 4, and g = 5.
MM. All of the dated letters in this room are
written on blue paper. None of them are in black ink, except those that are
written in the third person. I have not filed any of those I have not read.
None of those that are written on one sheet are undated. All of those that are
not crossed out are written in black ink. All of those that are written by Mr.
Brown begin with “Dear Sir.” All of those that are written on blue paper are
filed. None of those that are written on more than one sheet are crossed
out. None of those that begin with
“Dear Sir” are written in the third person. Hence, I cannot read any of Mr.
Brown’s letters.
6. Translate the following into symbolic form
(do not forget to define symbols representing prime statements) and supply a
valid conclusion:
A. No
kitten that loves fish is uneducable.
No kitten without a tail will play with a gorilla. Kittens with whiskers always love fish. No educable kitten has green eyes. No
kittens have tails unless they have whiskers.
B. Promise-breakers
are untrustworthy. Alcohol drinkers are very verbose. A person who keeps a
promise is honest. No teetotalers are pawnbrokers. One can trust a very
loquacious person.
C. All
the dated letters in this room are written on embossed paper. None of them are in black ink, except those
that are written in the third person. I
have not filed any of them that I can read.
None of them that are written on one sheet are undated. All of them that are not crossed are in
black ink. All of them written by
Thomas Brown, Esq. Begin with “Dear Sir.” All of them written on embossed paper
are filed. None of them written on more
than one sheet are crossed. None of them that begin with “Dear Sir” are written
in the third person.
§ 1.3 THE LAWS OF LOGIC
In
mathematics oft times there are concepts that are intuitive or practical that are
allowed such that there is general agreement to allow for the claim that such
may be assumed. These claims are called axioms or postulates and
are the basic ideas that underlie a particular area of mathematics.
Further,
there is oft a need to introduce other concepts, notation, symbols, etc. These are called definitions for they describe a class of objects, a symbol, or
other such fundamentals. The purpose of
a definition is to avoid ambiguity, so that clarity, objectivity, and rigor is
maintained. Many definitions are no
doubt familiar to you, the reader, for example the definition of the symbol “=,
” or the definition of a natural number.
However, the
definition of a concept may differ depending on context, author, subject,
class, etc. Some authors define the
natural numbers to be the collection of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ¼;
whilst others define the natural numbers to be the collection of numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, ¼
. Now clearly these are not logically
the same collections[2]
but it doesn’t really matter in the long run.[3] What does matter is that an author, an
instructor, etc. must define the
meaning of the term natural numbers before proceeding with a discussion of the
natural numbers or use of them.
Some definitions will be completely new to you,
the student, and thus will have to be learnt without prior exposure. For example, suppose the author defines a
“brent” to be any rational number such that when expressed in reduced fraction
form the denominator is 3. So, a
student can easily see that .5 is not a brent, .3 is not a brent, but is
a brent, 1 is not a brent, p is not a brent, .67 is not
a brent, but is a brent.
Furthermore,
the definition must completely specify the concept and cannot allow for
something to be both the concept and not the concept for that would be
self-contradictory; hence, useless (and see the law of double negation below).
We want a definition to be of use and not
self-contradictory; for example, in
everyday life the concept of tall is not well defined since it is ambiguous,
contextual, and subjective.
Axiom
1:
All prime statements P, Q, R, etc. are
statements.
If P is a statement, then Ø
P is a statement.
If P and Q are statements, then P Ú Q is a
statement.
If P and Q are statements, then P Ù Q is a
statement.
If P and Q are statements, then P Þ Q is a
statement.
If P and Q are statements, then P Û Q is a
statement.
Given the previous, then we can deduce that there
are tautological statements that are of use to us.
Idempotent
Law (1) P Ú P º P
Idempotent
Law (2) P Ù P º P
Truth Table 1.3.1
P |
P
Ú P |
T |
T |
F |
F |
Truth Table 1.3.2
P |
P
Ù P |
T |
T |
F |
F |
Law
of Double Negation Ø
(Ø P) P [ same as Ø
(Ø P) Û P ]
Truth Table 1.3.2
P |
ØP |
Ø(Ø P) |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
Law
of the Excluded Middle (1) P Ú ØP is always true[4]
Law
of the Excluded Middle (2) P Ù ØP is always false [5]
(Law
of Contradiction)
Please note that these laws are central to basic
(dichotomous) logic. Therefore, we note
the following truth tables as support for the assertion.
Truth Table 1.3.3
P |
Ø P |
P
Ú ØP |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
Truth Table 1.3.4
P |
Ø P |
P
Ù ØP |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
Material
Implication P Þ Q Ø P Ú Q
(The
Or Form of the Implication)
(note: when changing from implication to or form
reference or form; when changing from or form to implication reference
implication form; or, just reference material implication)
Truth Table 1.3.5
P |
Q |
P
Þ Q |
ØP |
Ø P Ú Q |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
Table 1.3.5
illustrates the use of one truth table to demonstrate the logical equivalence
of two statements. It is most useful
when typing since the letter denoting true or false for the claim can be highlighted
using the bold function in a word processing function of a computer. However,
when writing a justification of the logical equivalence of two statements it is
best to do two separate tables.
Contrapositive
Form of the Implication P
Þ Q Ø Q Þ Ø
P
(Transposition)
Truth Table 1.3.6
P |
Q |
P
Þ Q |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
Truth Table 1.3.7
P |
Q |
ØQ |
ØP |
ØQ Þ ØP |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
De
Morgan’s Law (1) Ø P Ú ØQ Ø (P Ù Q)
De
Morgan’s Law (2) Ø P Ù ØQ Ø (P Ú Q)
Truth Tables (exercises 1A and 1B)
Exportation P Ù R Þ Q (P Þ (R Þ Q))
(Direct Proof Law)
Truth Table (exercise 1C)
Indirect
Proof Law P Ù ØQ
Þ always false P Þ Q
Truth Table (exercise 1D)
Commutative
Law of
“or” (1)
P Ú Q Q Ú P
Commutative
Law of
“and” (2) P Ù
Q Q Ù P
Truth Tables (exercises 1E and 1F)
Associative
Law of
“or” (1)
P
Ú (Q Ú R) (P Ú Q) Ú R P Ú Q Ú R
Associative
Law of
“and” (2) P Ù (Q Ù R) (P Ù Q) Ù R P Ù Q Ù R
Truth Tables (exercises 1G and 1H)
Distributive
Law of “and over or” (1) P Ù (Q Ú R) (P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù
R)
Distributive
Law of “or over and” (2) P Ú (Q Ù R) (P Ú Q) Ù (P Ú
R)
Truth Tables (exercises 1I and 1J)
Law
of Disjunctive Addition (Law
of Addition) P Þ
P Ú Q
Truth Table 1.3.8
P |
Q |
P
Ú Q |
P
Þ P Ú Q |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
Law
of Conjunctive Simplification (Law of Simplification) P
Ù Q Þ
P
Truth Table 1.3.9
P |
Q |
P
Ù Q |
P
Ù Q Þ P |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
Of
course, P Ù
Q also implies Q, but this is not stated as a law since one can argue that P Ù Q is logically
equivalent to Q Ù
P (by the commutative law); then applying the law of simplification, it is the
case that we have Q.
Also,
note that oft times students confuse the law of addition and the law of
simplification. You must remember that “or does not reduce - - it adds” whilst
“and reduces it never adds.” If these
are confused, then many “proofs” that students produce are not worth the paper
on which the “proofs” were written.
Modus
Ponens [(P
Þ Q) Ù P ] Þ
Q
Truth Table (exercise 1K)
Modus
Tollens [(P
Þ Q) Ù ØQ]
Þ ØP
Truth Table (exercise 1L)
Disjunctive
Syllogism [(P
Ú Q) Ù ØQ]
Þ P
Truth Table (exercise 1M)
Hypothetical
Syllogism [
(P Þ Q) Ù (Q Þ
R)] Þ [P Þ
R ]
(Transitivity)
Truth Table (exercise 1N)
Assume
the hypothesis of the conclusion (P
Þ (R Þ Q)) Þ (P Ù R) Þ Q
Truth Table (exercise 1O)
Constructive
Dilemma [
(P Þ Q) Ù (R Þ S) Ù (P Ú R)] Þ [Q Ú
S ]
Truth Table (exercise 1P)
Destructive
Dilemma [
(P Þ Q) Ù (R Þ S) Ù (ØQ Ú ØS)] Þ
[ØP
Ú ØR]
Truth Table (exercise 1Q)
Whilst
most texts note the laws of logic and the rules of inference, it is not
sufficient in my opinion; stating the laws is all well and good but it is also
helpful to note the fallacies to avoid.
Therefore, we shall also discuss some fallacies of logic and rhetoric.
One
of the most pernicious mistakes students make is asserting the conclusion. They are often taught this is a valid method
of reasoning in high school (by teachers
who have no business teaching, I might add) or induce that it is a reasoning
pattern that is valid from typical high school mathematics problems such as:
(1) Let the universe be the real numbers.
Consider the equation x2 + x - 5 = 0. Solve for x.
Solution: x = -3 or x = 2.
(2) Let the universe be the real numbers. Reduce
(16)(64)-1. Solution: .25.
Note
that the assumption was made in the statement of the first problem that the
equality held. So, a student can by trial and error reach the solution without knowledge
of factoring, completion of the square, or the quadratic equation. Note that
the assumption was made in the statement of the second problem that it could be
reduced. Then a non-mathematical solution would be to plug it into a calculator
or reduce it incorrectly. So, a student can reach the solution without
knowledge of factorisation and proper methods of cancellation.
However,
assuming a conclusion and then “filling in the details” is fraught with
problems. Let us illustrate this with the second problem noted above. Consider four students A, B, C, and D.
Student A considers the problem. Let the
universe be the real numbers. Reduce (16)(64)-1.
He reaches for his TI - 89 and punches 16, 64, yx,
-1, and =. He sees .25 in the screen
and writes down the answer. What does
he really know?
Student B considers the problem. Let the
universe be the real numbers. Reduce (16)(64)-1.
She reaches for her Casio 4 and punches 16, 64, ¸, and =. She sees .25 in the screen and writes down
the answer. What does she really know?
Student C considers the problem. Let the
universe be the real numbers. Reduce (16)(64)-1.
He writes 16 . 64-1 = = =. We know he has incorrectly applied the
real variable law of cancellation.
Student D considers the problem. Let the
universe be the real numbers. Reduce (16)(64)-1.
He writes 16 . 64-1 = = = = =.
We know he has correctly applied real variable cancellation and knows what he is doing.
When
asserting a conclusion to a claim, one is already done. Let us illustrate this point by noting the
following. Suppose all boys are
rugged. All rugged things are tall.
Suppose from this we wish to say, “all boys are two-footed.”
Now, to begin let us
assume all boys are two-footed.
So? What’s our point? We are already at the conclusion. Did this mean that the first two sentences in the claim
necessarily imply the conclusion? Of course not, we are making one of the
oldest mistakes in reasoning: asserting the conclusion. Perhaps (I believe it
is the case) this was not the best example; but it shows how asserting the
conclusion really is quite the mistake.
The
Fallacy of Asserting the Conclusion [(P Þ Q) Ù Q] Þ
P
(
assuming the conclusion) (fallacy of
the converse)
Truth Table 1.3.10
P |
Q |
P
Þ Q |
(P
Þ Q) Ù Q |
[(P
Þ Q) Ù Q] Þ P |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
It is actually the case that necessarily!
The
Fallacy of Asserting the Premise (P Þ Q) Þ P
(
assuming the hypothesis of an implication must always be true)
Truth Table 1.3.11
P |
Q |
P
Þ Q |
(P
Þ Q) Þ P |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
It is actually the
case that necessarily! Also note that since there are two false entries
in the last column of the truth table versus one false entry in the last column
of truth table 1.3.10 does not make the fallacy of asserting the conclusion
“better” than the fallacy of asserting the premise. A fallacy is a fallacy - - no more, no less. Arguing on the basis
of a fallacy, fallacious reasoning, over-generalising, etc. are all wrong and
should be avoided.
The
Fallacy of Denial of the Hypothesis of a Conditional [(P Þ
Q) Ù ØP] Þ ØQ
(fallacy
of the inverse)
Truth Table 1.3.12
P |
Q |
P
Þ Q |
ØP |
(P
Þ Q) Ù ØP |
ØQ |
[(P
Þ Q) Ù ØP]Þ ØQ |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
It is actually the case that necessarily!
The
Fallacy of Reduction of Or P Ú Q Þ
P
(incorrectly reversing the law of addition)
Truth Table (exercise 2A)
The
Fallacy of Construction of And P Þ P Ù Q
(incorrectly reversing the law of
simplification)
Truth Table (exercise 2B)
There are MANY more fallacies we could list; but
these are the most common I have come across in grading proofs. Avoid them!
§ 1.3 EXERCISES.
1. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following laws. Note why such is a
law.
A. De
Morgan Law (1)
B. De
Morgan Law (2)
C. Exportation
D. Indirect
Proof Law
E. Commutative
Law of
“or” (1)
F. Commutative
Law of
“and” (2)
G. Associative
Law of
“or” (1)
H. Associative
Law of
“and” (2)
I. Distributive
Law of “and over or” (1)
J. Distributive
Law of “or over and” (2)
K. Modus
Ponens
L. Modus
Tollens
M. Disjunctive
Syllogism
N. Hypothetical
Syllogism
O. Assume the hypothesis of the conclusion
P. Constructive
Dilemma
Q. Destructive
Dilemma
2. Construct a compleat truth table for
the following fallacies. Note why such
is a fallacy.
A. The
Fallacy of Reduction of Or
B. The
Fallacy of Construction of And
C. (P Þ Q) º (Q Þ
P)
D. (P Þ Q) º (ØP
Þ ØQ)
§ 1.4 ARGUMENTS, ARGUMENT FORMS, PROOFS, AND
COUNTEREXAMPLES.
Suppose
we have a set of propositions and we wish to determine if there is some statement
that can be drawn from the propositions.
An argument may be defined as
any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others,
which are regarded as supplying evidence for the truth of that one. All the propositions that are pre-supposed
are called premises, and the one
that is claimed to follow from the others is called the conclusion. Premises are connected by an implied and, while the
premises are all group together, then the conclusion is connected to the
premises by a conditional.
Typical
examples of premise indicators are: for, since, because, given, given that,
whence, assuming that, seeing that, granted that, this is true because, the
reason for, for the reason that, by the fact that, inasmuch as, etc. Typical examples of conclusion indicators
are: thus, therefore, hence, so, consequently, accordingly, ergo, thereupon, it
follows that, which shows that, as a result, in conclusion, finally, en fin,
etc. Neither of these lists is
exhaustive (I am not a linguist); but, hopefully the lists will assist the
student in detecting the premises and conclusion. The conclusion typically ends the argument but does not have
to. For example the argument (albeit
simple), “Annie goes to the store, if Mickey want milk,” has the conclusion
preceding the premise.
Let
us consider another argument:
“If
I enroll in the course and study hard, then I will earn acceptable grades. If I
make satisfactory
grades, then I am content. I am not
content. Hence, either I
did not enroll in this
course or I did not study hard.”
“If I enroll in the course and study hard, then
I will earn acceptable grades” is premise one.
“If I make satisfactory grades, then I am
content” is premise two.
“I am not content” is premise 3.
“Either I did not enroll in this course or I did
not study hard” is the conclusion.
Note that the conclusion concludes the argument
(duh) and it is typically (but not always) separated from the premises by the
transitional word hence.
Now
symbolising the argument, let E denote “I enroll in the course,” S denote “I
study hard,” G denote “I earn acceptable (satisfactory) grades,” and C denote
“I am content.” Thus the argument is
[(E Ù
S ®G) Ù (G ® C) Ù (ØC)] Þ [ØE Ú ØS].
Note by order of operations, premise one is represented
as (E Ù
S) ®G (with
parentheses which for clarity is quite helpful). Referring to truth table 1.5.1, note only row 8, row 12, and row
16 result in the conjunction of the three premises being true. Thus, for row 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,
11, 13, 14, and 15 we get a final true
for the argument since false implies anything is true! [6] When one completes the truth table, he will
get for the statement ØE
Ú ØS true in rows
8, 12, and 16. Thus, the argument is
always true.
An
argument, which is always true, is said to be valid; an argument where there exists at least one combination of
truth-values for the premises and conclusion such that the argument is false is
said to be invalid. Thus, note only
tautological arguments are valid; whereas both arguments that are fallacies and
contradictions are invalid.[7]
Truth Table 1.4.1 (incompleat; compleat in exercise 1)
E (1) |
S (2) |
G (3) |
C (4) |
E
Ù S (5) |
E
Ù S ® G (6) |
G
® C (7) |
ØC (8) |
6
Ù 7 Ù 8 (9) |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
F |
T |
T |
T |
T |
Perhaps
one of the simplest and most useful argument forms is modus ponens. Consider the
premises p ®
q; p; thus, q. This is a simple argument
consisting of two premises; namely, if p, then q and p. It has a conclusion,
q. Let us let p be “you understand
logic” and q be “you pass the test” (you can put any simple sentence in for p
and any other simple sentence in for q).
So, the argument is: If you understand logic, then you will pass the
test. You understand logic. Thus, you pass the test.
Truth Table 1.4.2
P |
Q |
P
® Q |
(P
® Q) Ù P |
(P
® Q) Ù P Þ Q |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
T |
F |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
T |
F |
T |
F |
F |
T |
F |
T |
Thus, in the construction of arguments we may
use this as a valid argument form for justification of an argument.
Fundamental
primitive true[8] statements
in a system are called axioms. Such
statements are agreed upon to be true. Further
statements derived from the axioms are called lemmas, theorems, or
corollaries. A theorem is a further statement proven from the axioms. If the theorem is of a “sufficiently” small
scale and is used to prove a larger claim, then it is called a lemma (consider it a ‘helper’ theorem).
If a theorem follows so clearly and obviously from another theorem, then it is
called a corollary.
A proof or mathematical argument is
an argument such that it consists of a finite sequence of statements, each of
which is either a premise, an axiom, or a previously proven lemmas, theorems,
or corollaries, or follows from the premises, axioms, or previously proven
theorems by application of correct modes
of inference (logic). The last statement
is the conclusion that follows from the given set of premises. A proof is announced by writing Proof before
the argument and is closed by writing QED (which means quod erat demonstratum) at the end. The application of the correct modes of inference is the “map” of
the proof and the proof and QED the frame to announce to a reader where the
proof begins and where it ends.
Furthermore, the claim being proven should be succinctly stated
(otherwise oft one will be left with a very confused audience).
A
proof is to be clear, hopefully concise, and correct. A proof is not to be some sort of magic trick where slight of
hand, misdirection, etc. are employed.
A proof should understandable (assuming the reader has the requisite
background). A magician pulls a rabbit
out of a hat because of a concealed compartment, a gambler win a hand of poker
because of an ace up his sleeve, a businessman gets a contract because of
“connections.” None of these are reasonable concepts for the mathematician. The mathematician objectively seeks the
truth. The mathematician justifies his
inferences. The mathematician explains
his work. And the way the mathematician
does these things is by constructing sound proofs or counter-arguments.
You
may assume any of the laws of logic from section 1.3. Those are premises that are not stated. Therefore, even in the most simple of claims there are many
premises besides the stated ones; but they are agreed true statements that are
being assumed. Note we do not assume
that the fallacy of assuming the conclusion, etc. may be used. That which is assumed must be an axiom,
previously proven theorem, a stated premise, or a law of logic.
Let
us look at an example of a claim and a proof of the veracity of the claim.
Example
1.4.1
Claim: If I am spent, then
I shall rest. I am not resting. Therefore, I am not spent.
Let S denote “I am spent,” and R denote “I
rest.” Thus, the claim is
S ®
R. ØR. \ ØS.
Proof:
1. S ®
R 1.
Premise.
2. ØR 2.
Premise.
3. ØR ® ØS 3. Contrapositive form
of line 1.
4. ØS 4. Modus
Ponens (line 2 and line 3).
QED
Note that the proof
was done in a “vertical” form such that each statement is justified. Further note the claim was really an
application of modus tollens (and was valid by modus tollens). This should demonstrate that there is no one
mode of reasoning that is right. There
are many but they must be correct (not fallacious). In mathematics, an elegant proof is
considered one which is the shortest most compleat argument such that if one
word, one letter (perhaps) were deleted the proof would tumble and no longer be
valid. It is not the object of this
class (or any other that I ever teach) to instruct a student on elegance. A proof is valid so long as it contains all
that is required. If it is longer that
another - - so be it. Therefore, no
one will be encouraged to attempt elegance; you will be encouraged simply to be
right (and that is quite enough, I guarantee it [quote Justin Wilson]).
Now,
let’s consider a more challenging claim.
Example
1.4.2
Claim: Given the premises ØA
Ù C, B Þ
D, and Ø(D
Ù ØA). The conclusion ØB follows.
Proof:
1. ØA
Ù C 1. Premise.
2. ØA 2. Law of
Simplification (line1)
3. Ø(D Ù ØA) 3. Premise.
4. ØD Ú Ø(ØA) 4. DeMorgan’s Law (line
3).
5. ØD Ú A 5. Law of Double
Negation (line 4).
6. ØD 6.
Disjunctive Syllogism (lines 2 and 5).
7. B Þ D 7. Premise.
8. ØB 8. Modus
Tollens (lines 6 and 7).
QED
Let us
consider the use of this form of proof.
There are other forms (most often referred to as horizontal form proofs
since they are written more in the style of everyday Western writing. Let us
look at the following claim and compare and contrast the techniques of writing
a proof.
Example
1.4.3
Claim: Given the premises P Ú
Q, ØS, P Þ
ØR, and R Ú S. The conclusion Q follows.
Proof (1): Consider R Ú S. Let us
assume ØS. So, R. Assume P Þ ØR. So, ØP. Assume P Ú Q. Thus, Q.
QED.
Proof (2): Consider R Ú S (it can be
assumed since it is a premise). Let us assume ØS
since it too is a premise. So, R must
follow by the disjunctive syllogism. Assume P Þ
ØR since it is a
premise. So, ØP
must follow by modus tollens. Assume P Ú
Q since it is a premise. Thus, Q
follows by the disjunctive syllogism.
Hence, the conclusion follows from the premises. QED.
Proof (3):
1. R Ú
S 1.
Premise.
2. ØS 2.
Premise.
3. R 3.
Disjunctive Syllogism (1,2).
4. P Þ ØR 4. Premise.
5. Ø(ØR) 5. Law of
Double Negation (3).
6. ØP 6. Modus
Tollens (4, 5).
7. P Ú Q 7. Premise.
8. Q 8.
Disjunctive Syllogism (6, 7).
QED
Note
that proof (1) is correct. However, the
deletion of the justification leaves the reader to recall the reasons why the
statements follow. Note proof (2) is
correct, but with the added loquacious manner, it is not the best technique to
follow when one is trying to establish a comfort with method of proof. Hence, proof (3) is the most satiating since
it combines parsimony with detail. So, for now we will follow technique
(3). In time (Math 255), the student
will begin to use proof technique (2); and, eventually, he will be comfortable
enough to use technique (1) [with regard to logic - - the particular justification
in a mathematical area will oft be required by professors so that clarity is
maintained].
One
might reasonably ask must every proof begin with the premises and end with the
conclusion. The answer is, “no.” So far we have consider claims such that it
is facile to assume the premises and derive the conclusion. However, we must keep in mind that not all
claims are true (so we will be discussing the methods of disproof - -
counterexample) and even if a claim is true, it may not be so easy to prove in
a direct manner such as we have seen to this point.
The straight-forward
method employed so far is:
Direct
Proof (1): To prove the conclusion C from a set of
premises {say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk} show that C is
provable as a consequent of the set of premises (hypotheses) P1, P2,
P3, . . ., Pk.
The practical meaning is:
I want to prove ASSUMING the
premises P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk that C
follows from them; so,
I assume P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk are
true and prove that C follows
from these premises.
Nonetheless,
suppose the conclusion is an implication. In this case we may employ a
different method of proof that is still direct.
Direct
Proof (2): To prove the implication A Þ B from a set
of premises {say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk} it is sufficient to include
A in the set of premises {e.g.: A, P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk} and show that B is
provable as a consequent of the augmented set of premises (hypotheses).
The practical meaning is:
I want to prove ASSUMING the
premises P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk that A Þ B follows from
them,
so, it
is equivalent to: Assume A, P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk are the premises and
prove that (B) follows from these. This
can be done since the law of logic assume the hypothesis of the
conclusion, (P Þ (R Þ Q)) Þ (P Ù R) Þ Q,
is true.
Let us consider a
claim that can be proven using the direct proof (2) method (it does not have to be proven in this manner, it is
just convenient to do so).
Example
1.4.4
Claim: Given the premises A Þ B, C Þ
D, (B Ù
D) Þ ØE,
and E it is the case that
A Þ ØC
follows as a conclusion.
Proof :
1. A 1.
Hypothesis of the conclusion.
2. A Þ B 2. Premise.
3. B 3.
Modus Ponens (1,2).
4. E 4.
Premise.
5. (B Ù D) Þ ØE 5. Premise.
6. Ø(B Ù D) 6. Modus Tollens (4,
5).
7. ØB Ú ØD 7. DeMorgan’s Law
(6).
8. ØD 8.
Disjunctive Syllogism (3, 7).
9. C Þ D 9. Premise.
10. ØC 10. Modus
Tollens (8, 9).
QED
Nonetheless,
claims are not true every time they are posed.
Thus, a need to discuss proper techniques for demonstrating that a claim
is false is also a matter that must be discussed. A counter-argument that demonstrates a claim is false is known as
a counterexample. It is constructed in a similar, but not
identical, manner as a proof. Recall
that the form of a proof is 1) the announcement of the proof by writing,
“proof,” followed by the argument, followed by the announcement that is is
done, “QED.” Similarly, the form for a
counterexample begins with a declaration that a counterexample is being
proposed; thus, announced by writing, “counterexample,” then the counterexample
is declared which is an assignment of truth values for all the prime
statements, then the writer demonstrates that it is indeed a counterexample by
noting the argument is false with the assigned truth values, and, finally the
counterexample is declared finished by writing “EEF,” which means exemplum est factum.
Consider
the following claim: Given the premises A Þ
B, C Þ
D, (B Ù
D) Þ ØE,
and E it is the case that ØC
follows as a conclusion. Note that it
is similar to the previous claim (which does not mean that it is false
necessarily – more than one conclusion may be derived from a given set of
premises (see the exercise set at the end of this section). Nonetheless, this
is a false claim. One can discern the
lack of veracity by doing a compleat truth table (which is a fine method, but
then one need to present the truth table in the compleat counterexample form, thus
exhausting much time). One can discern that it is false by considering that
argument forms follow the strict pattern of an inferred “and” between each
premise, and an inferred conditional connecting the premises to the conclusion,
for what we are saying is that if the
premises are true, does it the conclusion logically follow? Note, that it does
not matter how silly the hypotheses are- it is the argument that we are
considering and the implication of premises to conclusion. Thus, each of the premises must be true and
the conclusion false.
Therefore, let ØC be false
which necessarily implies that C is true by the law of the excluded
middle. Since C is true and one of the
premises is C Þ
D, since the hypothesis of this conditional is true, the consequent must also
be true. So, D is true. Note that there
is a unique E as a premise. It must be
true. So, now considering the premise
(B Ù D) Þ ØE,
we have ØE
is false and when the consequent is false the only way for the implication to
be true is if the antecedent is also false.
We already have D is true, so the only way to make this whole premise
true is if we assign a false for B. So,
B is false. Now, let us turn our
attention to the last premise (which was the first in the list [note: order
does not matter, what matters is getting it right]) A Þ B, we already
said B is false which forces A to be false also to make sure the premise is
true. All of the aforementioned analysis is conducted by a student either in
his head (if he has an excellent memory) or on scratch paper. Now we are ready for the
counterexample.
Example
1.4.5
Claim: Given the premises A Þ B, C Þ
D, (B Ù
D) Þ ØE,
and E it is the case that ØC
follows as a conclusion.
Counterexample :
Let A be false, B be false, C be true, D be
true, and E be true.
Consider the claim [ (A Þ
B) Ù (C Þ D) Ù (B Ù D) Þ ØE)
Ù (E) ] Þ ØC
Which is [
(F Þ F) Ù (T Þ T) Ù (F Ù T) Þ ØT)
Ù (T) ] Þ ØT
So, [
( T ) Ù
( T ) Ù
( F Þ F )
Ù (T) ] Þ F
Thus, [
( T ) Ù
( T ) Ù
( T ) Ù
(T) ] Þ F
Hence, So, T Þ F
Which is false.
EEF.
Note
the first line is the counterexample (in actuality that is it). However, demonstrating that it is indeed a
counterexample does two things: first, it helps the student realise he is right
(or wrong and must propose a different counterexample); and, second, it helps
the reader follow the logic of the counterexample (especially when there is a
complex claim).
Now,
let us consider another claim:
Claim: Given the premises A Þ ØB, ØA Þ ØC, C, D Þ B, it is the
case that ØD
follows as a conclusion.
Suppose
the conclusion seems to follow from the premises, but it is not easily seen
directly. In this case we may employ a different method of proof called
indirect.
Indirect
Proof (1): For
the above claim let us use reducto ad
absurdum (reduce to the absurd), also called proof by contradiction.[9]
To prove Q follows from a set of premises {say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk }it is sufficient to
consider ØQ
as an additional premise {say ØQ, P1,
P2, P3, . . ., Pk
}
and prove a statement of the form ØR
Ù R, where R is
any statement following from the premises and the negation of the conclusion. The practical meaning of this is that when
one wants to prove ASSUMING the premises P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk that Q follows from them, it
is equivalent to assuming ØQ,
P1, P2, P3,
. . ., Pk are
the premises and prove that () follows from these where can be any statement and its negation that follows (which is
the contradiction - - because it is nonsensical to claim that R and not R can
be true at the same time because it is a violation of the law of the excluded
middle). With that being the case, then
the addition of not Q to the hypotheses must have been in error! So, since all the hypotheses P1,
P2, P3, . . ., Pk were assumed true and ØQ,
P1, P2, P3,
. . ., Pk is
false, then ØQ must be false as a consequent to P1,
P2, P3, . . ., Pk,
ergo Q must follow (since there were only two possibilities, Q and ØQ)!
Moreover,
an important principle of proof must also be noted before attacking the
claim. That is there is another
technique we must mention, adjunction. If
P is provable from the set of premises {say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk } and Q is provable
from the same set of premises, then P Ù
Q is provable from that set of premises.
The practical meaning of this is let us suppose you are doing a proof
(any method) that P is provable from
the set of premises (P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk),
later you do a proof Q is provable from the same
set of premises logic ‘tells’ us that P Ù
Q is a result of P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk. In ordinary circumstances such has already
been deduced, but when doing a proof there are times one needs a statement of
the form P Ù
Q and one already has shown P follows from the premises and Q follows from the
premises. Thus, we use the
justification of adjunction to note that we have P Ù Q. It will become clear in the next proof (note
lines 8, 9, and 10).
Let
us now return to the claim and a proof of the veracity of the claim using reducto ad absurdum:
Example
1.4.6
Claim: Given the premises A Þ ØB, ØA Þ ØC, C, D Þ B, it is the
case that ØD
follows as a conclusion.
Proof :
1. Ø(ØD) 1. Negation of
the conclusion.
2. D 2. Law
of Double Negation (1).
3. D Þ B 3. Premise.
4. B 4.
Modus Ponens (2, 3).
5. A Þ
ØB 5. Premise.
6. ØA 6. Modus
Tollens (4, 5).
7. ØA Þ ØC 7. Premise.
8. ØC 8. Modus
Ponens (6, 7).
9. C 9.
Premise
10. ØC Ù C 10. Adjunction
(8, 9).
11. ØD 11.
Contradiction (1, 10).
QED
Normally, many mathematicians skip the
illustration of the law of double negation.
I have included it in this example for the sake of clarity.
I
cannot underrate the importance of this method of proof. Oft times I have found myself with nary a
hope of proving a claim, but then when I attacked the claim indirectly, it
became facile. Further, there are some
claims that cannot be proven directly (that I know of); for example, it is the
case considering the real numbers that is irrational.[10] Given the nature of the irrationals (the name
alone conjures up an image of something that is not very ‘nice’) one can see
that properties of the rationals are such that they are ‘nice,’ so assuming is rational will lead us to a contradiction (we will prove
this to be the case in Set Theory or Advanced Calculus I).
Let
us consider another important principle of proof. There is another technique we must mention, substitution.[11] Suppose you have a set of premises (say P1, P2,
P3, . . ., Pk )
and hold Pa (one
of the premises) is obtainable from another say, Pb, by substituting a
statement R for any occurrence of a statement S in Pa.
Then we
can derive Pb from
S Û R and Pa. The practical meaning of this is
when you have a set of premises (say P1,
P2, P3, . . ., Pk
) and you want to show a particular one of the premises is derivable from
another one of the premises the equivalence statement S Û R means S can
replace any occurrence of R or visa versa by substituting in any part of the
proof. In ordinary circumstances such has already been deduced or given (the
equivalence of some statement S and R e.g.: D º
ØØD by the law of
double negation), but when doing a proof there are times one needs a statement
of the form R and one already has shown S follows from the premises. Thus, we use the justification of
substitution to note that we have R. It
will become clear in the next proof (note lines 8, 9, and 10).
Example
1.4.7
Claim: Given the premises A Ú B, ØA , C Þ E, C Û B, it is the
case that E follows as a conclusion.
Proof :
1. ØA 1.
Premise.
2. A Ú B 2. Premise.
3. B 3.
Disjunctive Syllogism (1, 2).
4. C Þ
E 4.
Premise.
5. C Û B 5. Premise.
6. C 6.
Substitution (3, 5)
7. E 7.
Modus Ponens (6, 4).
QED
Oft
times substitution comes in some interesting forms; for example, in reduction
of fractions in arithmetic, polynomial expressions in algebra, etc. You will find it a useful technique; but be
careful for it is only allowable such that there is a logical equivalence, not
in a simple implication form. For
example because C Û
B, we could substitute C for B, but if we had C Þ
B we could not. Some of the ‘trickiest’
cases with the erroneous use of substitution occurs in real analysis. Consider the real numbers and the function f (x) = x + 1 where f (x) goes from the reals to the reals. Note it is a line. Is g(x) = the same? Can we substitute g (x) for f (x)? The answer is, “no.” Note (from your understanding of functions
from high school) that f (1) exists,
but g (1) does not. Therefore, the two could not be the same (we
will explore this in more depth throughout your mathematical studies). Suffice it to say that some things look deceptively true when indeed they are
false.
Also,
let us note that in the preceding discussion we had premises that were consistent. A set of premises is consistent if contradiction does not follow
from them. A set of premises is inconsistent if a contradiction (a
statement of the form R Ù
ØR) necessarily follows
from them.
Note, therefore, we use the inconsistency of
adjoining the negation of the conclusion to a given set of premises to arrive
at a contradiction when we use the technique of reducto ad absurdum.
Some
times a given set of premises is incompleat,
which is to say if there was just one or more conditions added to the list of
premises, then we could prove a particular conclusion. Researchers find this to be the case often
(where they have to strengthen hypotheses).
Consider we assume A Þ (B Þ C) is true and
we wish to deduce ØA. We cannot!
However, if we could argue that B Ù
ØC are true;
then we could prove this along with A Þ
(B Þ C) forces ØA. Much in science explicitly or implicitly
relates to this type of scenario.
However, it is beyond the scope of the course and lays groundwork which
I feel is harmful. This is because oft
times students add hypotheses to problems that are not stated nor implied!
For example, consider
the problem of solving = 0 for the real numbers.
Note (from your understanding of functions from high school) that = 0 Þ x = Ú x = -. Many students would
say the answer does not exist (they are thinking only of rational numbers)
which is wrong. Many students would write the solution as thinking that means x
= Ù x = -which is wrong. Many students would write x = 2.2360679775 or
x = - 2.2360679775 (which are approximations on
a calculator) which is wrong. Consider the claim that many high school
students allow: for the real numbers
which is false (suppose x = 0). Indeed consider one of
my favourites: Reduce completely . Many students claim this is
equal to x - y; it is not (solve it
yourself).
I could drone on, but
suffice it to say that some things look deceptively
right when indeed they are wrong. So
incumbent on you, the student, is the responsibility to learn how to properly,
correctly, and precisely reason and to ‘toss off’ the shackles of answers
gained by external methods (calculators), added hypotheses which are not correct,
etc.
Let
us direct our attention to a given set of premises and let us deduce a
conclusion that follows form the given set of premises. For example, consider ØA Þ ØB, B, A Þ C what
necessarily follows from these premises?
Since B is given note by modus tollens that A follows. However, that is
not very satiating since we have not used all the premises (but it is not wrong since there is no method of
proof that states all premises must be used; if all the premises are not
used, then the premises not used are called unnecessary premises or superfluous
premises and in research would be
discarded before a final presentation [if the researcher realised that it was
not used]). Since B is given note by modus tollens that A follows and that
since A ÞC
is given it therefore follows that C is a conclusion that follows. Note that ØC
could not follow! However, Ø(ØC) follows as
does Ø(Ø(Ø(ØC))), etc. So,
may logically equivalent statements follow from a given set of premises. Could it be the case that two different
conclusions can follow? The answer is,
“yes,” when we allow for unnecessary premises.
Consider
the premises to be K Þ
L, M Þ N, O Þ N, P Þ L, ØN Ú ØL, ØM Ú ØO. Note that ØN Ú ØL º N Þ ØL; thus, since
M Þ N is a premise
it follows we have M Þ
ØL. But, M Þ ØL º L Þ ØM; thus, since
P Þ L is a premise
we can derive P Þ
ØM by the
hypothetical syllogism. However, note
since we have ØN
Ú ØL º ØL Ú ØN º L Þ ØN; thus, since
K Þ L is a
premise, we get K Þ
ØN. But, M Þ
N is a premise, so M Þ
N º ØN Þ ØM; thus, K Þ ØM. On the other
hand, ØM
Ú ØO º ØO Ú ØM º O Þ ØM which leads
nowhere. So, there are different
conclusions that can be drawn from the premises. One might say the best was a conclusion that uses the most premises;
and one should always seek such conclusions.
I am not in that school. What I
advocate (profess) is that it is important for a student of mathematics to be
right, to know why he is right (therefore, he justifies himself), and to
communicate that to others (communicate - - not condescend). The last comment is, perhaps, the most
important for it is not the case that we wish to ‘keep the secrets’ of
mathematics to ourselves, but to share our understanding with others. However, it is not the case that this
profession is predicated on the principle of doing it for others. A professor of mine (now deceased) at
Georgia State used to have on his office door the saying (I am paraphrasing)
that, “to give a man a fish means he will eat for a day; but, to teach a man to
fish means he will be able to eat for a lifetime.” Therefore, reading this text is not enough, you must do for
yourself; hence, the exercise set follows.
§ 1.4 EXERCISES.
1. Given the premises A Þ
(B Ú C), B Þ ØC; prove or
disprove that A Þ
B follows as a conclusion.
2. Given the premises A Þ
B, A Ú C Þ D; prove or
disprove that B Þ
D follows as a conclusion.
3. Given the premises A Þ B, C Þ
D, (B Ú
D) Þ E, E; prove or disprove that A ÞØ
C follows as a conclusion.
4. Given the premises S Þ
P, D Ú (Q Ù S), ØD; prove or
disprove that P follows as a conclusion.
5. Given the premises A Þ
M, Ø(M Ù ØS), ØS Ù B; prove or
disprove that ØA
follows as a conclusion.
6. Given the premises D Ù ØN Ú S, S Þ ØJ; prove or disprove that J Þ D follows as a conclusion.
7. Given the premises D Ú S Þ A, D Ú A; prove or
disprove that A follows as a conclusion.
8. Given the premises D Ú (S Þ A), D Ú A; prove or
disprove that A follows as a conclusion.
9. Given the premises (D Ú S) Þ A, D Ú A; prove or
disprove that A follows as a conclusion.
10. Given the premises S Þ
P, P Þ (W Ú J), ØW Ù S; prove or
disprove that J follows as a conclusion.
11. Given the premises A Þ
U, ØU Ú (B Ù ØJ), ØA Þ ØB, Ø(ØJ Ù ØA) Ú B; prove or
disprove that J Þ
ØA follows as a
conclusion.
12. Given the premises A Þ
U, ØU Ú (B Ù ØJ), ØA Þ ØB, Ø(ØJ Ù ØA) Ú B; prove or
disprove that J Þ
A follows as a conclusion.
13. Given the premises A Þ
U, ØU Ú (B Ù ØJ), ØA Þ ØB, Ø(ØJ Ù ØA) Ú B; prove or
disprove that ØA
Þ J follows as a
conclusion.
14. Given the premises P Þ
Q, R Ú ØQ, Ø(ØP Ú ØS); prove or
disprove that R Ù
S follows as a conclusion.
15. Given the premises ØP
Þ (Q Þ R), R Ù S Þ T, U Þ
(Q Ù S), Ø(ØU Ú P); prove or disprove
that T follows as a conclusion.
16. For the given set of premises, determine a
suitable conclusion such that the argument is valid:
A. Premises:
p ®
q ,
r ®
Øq
B. Premises:
p ®
Øq , q
C. Premises: p
®
Øq , r ®p , q
17. Given the following “proof,” detect the
error(s) in the “proof” and explain why it is (are) an error(s). Please be brief, but write legibly and in
compleat sentences! Justification for
each step will not be provided since it is not a proof.
Claim: Given the premises ØB
Ú C, ØA Þ B; the
conclusion C Ù
ØA follows.
“Proof:”
1. ØA 6. C Ù
ØA
2. ØA Þ B “QED”
3. B
4. ØB
Ú C
5. C
§ 1.5 MORE ON LOGIC PROOFS.
There
are more proof techniques that we need to add to our ‘bag of tricks.’ One of these is the method of proof by
cases. Cases is not like what we have discussed previously because the
techniques of direct and indirect proof are truly different; whereas, proof by
cases is a method that is subsumed under the other type of methods. It is most useful in both algebra and
analysis, so spend some time concentrating on the technique, when it is useful,
and how to do it.[12]
Proof
by cases: To prove
P Ú
Q Þ R it is necessary & sufficient to prove R
follows from P and R follows from Q. The practical meaning of this is
you do a proof (direct or indirect)
that R follows logically from P, then later you do a proof (any
method) R follows logically from Q ,
then logically P Ú
Q Þ R. Note that This can be generalised to P1
Ú P2 Ú
P3 Ú . . . Ú Pk Þ
R such
that k is a natural number. As the number of cases increases, one generally
pauses and considers trying a method other than cases; but, cases no matter if
there are 2 or 1,000,000 will work if it works (a wonderfully obvious comment
on my part).
Example
1.5.1
Claim: Given the
premises A Ú B, B Þ
ØC; prove or
disprove the conclusion A Ú
ØC follows.
Proof :
1. B Þ
ØC 1. Premise.
2. A Ú B 2. Premise.
Case 1: 3a. A 3a. Cases Case
2: 3b. B 3b. Cases
4a. A Ú
ØC 4a.
Law of Addition (3a) 4b. ØC 4b. Modus Ponens (3b, 1)
5b. ØC
Ú A 5b. Law
of Add (4b)
6b. A Ú
ØC 6b. Commutative (5b).
Hence, A Ú
ØC.
QED
Note
that in each case the conclusion must follow.
Note that when executing case 2, nothing from case 1 can be referenced
(so in the example above only lines 1 or 2 can be referenced in case 2; not
lines 3a or 3b). Hopefully, you can
see the example was a bit stilted for there was an easier way to prove the
claim; but, it suffices to illustrate that each case is done separately.
Now
let us turn our attention to yet another method of proof that we may
employ. It is different than previous
methods, but is still direct.
Direct
Proof (3) (by contraposition): To prove the implication A Þ B from a set
of premises (say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk ) it is sufficient to
include ØB
in the set of premises (e.g.: ØB,
P1, P2, P3,
. . ., Pk) and show that ØA
is provable as a consequent of the augmented set of premises (hypotheses). Notice this is using the contrapositive form
of the conclusion. We are not assuming
the negation of the conclusion (which would be Ø(A
Þ B)) which is
an indirect form of proof this contraposition form is direct. The practical meaning is suppose you want to prove ASSUMING the
premises P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk that A Þ B follows from
them, so, it is equivalent to: assume ØB,
P1, P2, P3,
. . ., Pk are
the premises and prove that ØA
follows from these. I do not have acquaintance with many people who use this technique
often; but, it is a valid method.
Further, it seems to me to be most useful when there are negations in
the conclusion. For example, consider:
Example
1.5.2
Claim: Given the
premises A Ú B, ØB,
A Þ C, D Ù C Þ E; prove or
disprove the conclusion ØE
Þ ØD follows.
Proof:
1. Ø(ØD) 1. Negation of
consequent of conclusion
2. D 2. Law
of Double Negation (1).
3. ØB 3.
Premise
4. A Ú B 4.
Premise.
5. A 5.
Disjunctive Syllogism (3, 4).
6. A Þ C 6. Premise
7. C 7.
Modus Ponens (5, 6).
8. D Ù C 8. Adjunction
(2, 7)
9. D Ù C Þ E 9. Premise
10. E 10.
Modus Ponens (8, 9).
11. Ø(ØE) 11. Law of
Double Negation.
QED
Finally,
let us consider not really another proof technique so much as a particular type
of conclusion which when claimed to conclude from a given set of premises, how
we can ‘best’ write up an understandable and correct proof.
Proof
for a biconditional: To prove the biconditional A Û B from a set
of premises (say P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pk ) it is sufficient to
prove A Þ
B as a consequent of the premises and
to prove B Þ
A as a consequent of the premises. Notice
this is in fact doing two proofs (reminiscent of cases, but rather than cases
we are using the fact that A Û
B º (A Þ B Ù B Þ A).
Consider:
Example
1.5.3
Claim: Given the
premises C Þ A, ØC Þ ØJ, A Þ M, ØM
Ú J; it is the
case that J Û A follows as a
conclusion.
Proof:
(Þ) 1.
J 1.
Hypothesis of the conclusion in the (Þ)
direction[13].
2.
ØC Þ ØJ 2. Premise
3.
J Þ C 3. Contrapositive (2) [and
law of double negation]
4.
C Þ A 4. Premise
5.
J Þ A 5. Hypothetical Syllogism
(3, 4)
6.
A 6. Modus
Ponens (1, 5).
(Ü) 1.
ØJ 1. Negation of the
consequent in the (Ü)
direction[14].
2.
ØM Ú J 2. Premise
3.
ØM 3. Disjunctive
Syllogism (1, 2)
4.
A Þ M 4. Premise
5.
ØA 5. Modus Tollens (3,
4)
QED
Nonetheless,
it is sufficient to show that a biconditional claim is false in one direction
when the claim is indeed false.
Consider the claim:
Example
1.5.4
Claim: Given the
premises P Þ Q, R Ú ØQ, Ø(ØP Ú ØS); it is the
case that ØR
Û S follows as a
conclusion.
Counterexample:
Let P be true, Q be true, R be true, and S be
true.
Consider the claim [ (P Þ
Q) Ù (R Ú ØQ) Ù (Ø(ØP Ú ØS))] Þ (S Þ
ØR)
Which is [
(T Þ T) Ù (T Ú ØT) Ù (Ø(ØT Ú ØT))] Þ (T Þ
ØT)
So, [
( T ) Ù (T Ú F ) Ù ( T Ù T
) ] Þ (T Þ
F)
Thus, [
( T ) Ù
( T ) Ù
( T ) ] Þ F
Hence, So, T Þ F
Which is false.
Since it is false in the (Ü) direction, it
does not matter what the truth value of the
(Þ)
direction is; hence, the claim is false.
EEF.
§ 1.5 EXERCISES.
1. Given the premises A Þ
(B Ú C), B Þ ØC; prove or
disprove that A Û
B follows as a conclusion.
2. Given the premises (P Ù
ØQ) Ú (Q Ù ØR), P Þ
S, ØS
Ú T, ØT; prove or
disprove that Q follows as a conclusion.
3. Given the premises P Ú ØQ, P Ú
Q; prove or disprove that P follows as a conclusion.
4. Given the premises P Ú ØQ, P Ú
(Q ® R); prove or
disprove that P follows as a conclusion.
5. Given the premises P Ú R, Q ®
R, ØR; prove or
disprove that ØP
follows as a conclusion.
6. Given the premises X ® A, P ® X, A ® M, ØM Ú P; prove or
disprove that A Û
P follows as a conclusion.
7. Given the premises X ® P, P ® (W Ú Z), ØW Ù X; prove or
disprove that Z follows as a conclusion.
8. Given the premises ØE ® G, Ø(B Ù E); prove or
disprove that B Þ
G follows as a conclusion.
9. Translate the following arguments into
symbols and prove or disprove the claim:
A. If Bob doesn’t win, then Kenneth will not
win. Sean will win, if Kenneth does not
win. Sean didn’t win. Therefore, Bob
won.
C. If
Winston or Halbert wins then Luke and Susan cry. Susan does not cry. Thus,
Halbert does not win.
D. If I
enroll in the course and study hard, then I will earn acceptable grades. If I
make satisfactory grades, then I am content.
I am not content. Hence, either I did not enroll in this course or I did
not study hard.
E. If
the population increases rapidly and production remains constant, then prices
rise. If prices rise then the government will control prices. I am rich then I do not care about increases
in prices. It is not true that I am not
rich. Either the government does not control prices or I do not care about
increases in prices. Therefore, it is not the case that the population
increases rapidly and production remains constant.
F. Dean
praises me only if I can be proud of myself.
Either I do well in classes or I cannot be proud of myself. If I do my best in sports, then I cannot be
proud of myself. Therefore, if Dean
praises me, then I do my best in sports.
G. It
was murder or suicide. There was no weapon found at the scene of the crime and
if it was murder, there would be a motive.
If there was a motive, then there would be a weapon at the scene of the
crime. Thus, it was suicide.
H. If he
is elected, then he will go to Atlanta or Washington. It is not the case that he will run for office and go to
Washington. He will run for office and be elected. Therefore, he will go to Atlanta.
I. If he
is a Democrat or a Republican, he shall run for office. If he is not a Democrat, then he will run
for office. Therefore, he will run for
office.
J. If he
is not cautious, then it is false that he is tempestuous and
contemplative. He is contemplative and
he is tempestuous or strong. He isn’t strong.
Therefore, he is cautious.
§ 1.6 MORE ON FALLACIES.
There exist at least
three functions or uses of language according to philosophy:
1) the informative function - in which language is
used to inform;
2) the expressive function - in which language
is used to express feelings, emotions, or attitudes of the actor or to evoke
feelings, emotions, or attitudes to the listener or reader: and,
3) the directive function - in which language is
used to cause or prevent certain overt or covert actions.
Only in case 1 of the
above can we, perhaps, determine the veracity of a statement; indeed, there are
many instances where the veracity may not be determinable. An example of a
statement the veracity of which can be determined is, “It is the year 2002
A.D..” An example of a statement the
veracity of which cannot be determined is, “Julius Caesar said, ‘goodbye,’ to
Livia before leaving for the Senate on the ides of March 44 B.C..”
We
have defined the three possible truth values of a statement (or argument) to be
tautology, fallacy, and contradiction.
Further, we noted there are different types of fallacies, such as the
fallacy of the assertion of the conclusion of a conditional, the fallacy of
denial of the hypothesis of a
conditional, the fallacy of the inverse of a conditional, and the fallacy of
the converse of a conditional.
There are other types
of fallacies which though may be emotionally, politically, psychologically,
etc. persuasive are nonetheless fallacies because the are examples of incorrect
reasoning. These are typically referred to as common or everyday fallacies of
idiomatic English or fallacies of rhetoric. Rhetoric or elocution, a way with
words, the “gift of gab,” advocacy, etc. are possibly fine traits and assist a
person in everyday life but they have no place in mathematical reasoning.
The
fallacy of Petitio Prencipii, or begging the question, is
an example.
The
fallacy of relevance is such that the premises are logically irrelevant to the
conclusion. Its premises are not
relevant to the objective of establishing the truth of the conclusion. One may easily see this if one notes the
power of emotive language that through clever use of language a person may
persuade an audience to accept a particular conclusion even though a logically
correct argument was not used to show the particular conclusion must follow
from a set of premises.
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Bacculum, or
the appeal to force, is such that one uses the threat of force or coercion to
cause acceptance of a particular statement.
One cannot prove that Catholicism is true by arguing that you will be
damned if you don’t agree that Catholicism is true!
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Hominem
takes on many form.
The fallacy of Argumentum ad Hominem (1), or the
abusive, is such that one tries to cause rejection of a proposition by
attacking, insulting, criticising, disparaging, or abusing a person who asserts
a proposition rather that presenting evidence to disprove the truth of a
particular proposition. Oft used to cause anger, resentment, etc. in the
audience so that said hostility clings
to the person proposing a statement and transfers to the proposition itself. It
is perhaps sound advise to note that one’s attitude toward the person proposing
a statement should be held independent of the actual statement since it is independent of the statement.
The fallacy of Argumentum ad Hominem (2), or the
circumstantial (1), is such that two or more people disagree about the truth of
some proposition and when one or more (the actors), instead of trying to prove
the truth of the assertion, tries to cause acceptance of the assertion on the
grounds that if follows from the other’s (adversary) beliefs. Just because it
follows from one’s beliefs does not establish the veracity of a proposition for
the beliefs themselves may be erroneous. The fallacy of Argumentum ad Hominem (2) is a valid form of debate for an actor to
note an inconsistency in an adversary’s position; but, to conclude that the
author’s position is correct is false since both positions might be in
error.
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Hominem (3),
or the circumstantial (2), is such that a person concludes that a particular
position is false on the grounds that the opponent asserts the proposition
because of special circumstance and not for an objective reason. Showing self-interest in the opponent rather
than objective evidence as to why the opponent’s position is wrong does not
prove the proposition false. Once again, this fallacy may be an effective
debating technique, but does nothing to establish whether a proposition is true
or false.
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Ignorantiam,
or the argument from ignorance, is such that one argues a position based on false
information, faulty information, lack of information, or one’s imagination;
further one concludes a proposition is false since it has not been proved true
or one concludes a proposition is true since it has not been proved false.
This position is most
easily represented by the position of “it is my opinion [even though there is
no evidence to support such] . . .” as if one has a right to be wrong. It can also be represented by, “the N. I. H.
found no evidence to suggest that holistic medicine is harmful. Thus, holistic medicine is good for you.”
Perhaps my favourite example of argumentum ad ignorantiam is “statistics proves
[fill in the blank].”[15]
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Misericordiam,
or the argument from misery or pity, is such that one ‘argues’ a position based
on pity (the speaker emotes the audience to feel pity for him or his position,
thus getting the audience to acquiesce to his conclusion).
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Populum, or
the argument from the popular, is such that one argues a position based on
emotive advertising, propoganda, or appeal to the “majority.” There are two
types most often refernced in this fallacy: the appeal to snobbery (example:
the Polo crest) or the “band-wagon” effect (example: everyone is doing it...).
The
fallacy of Argumentum ad Verecundiam,
or the appeal to authority, is such that one argues a position based on an
appeal to an authority that is in fact not an authority on the particular
subject. For example, consider that Dr.
Pepper recommends flossing one’s teeth.
That Dr. Pepper recommends flossing in no way establishes that flossing
is an idea which should be accepted. Dr. Pepper is a soda not a dentist; but,
there are many examples of the abuse of the term “doctor.”
The
fallacy of Accident is such that one
argues a generalisation or heuristic is usually true, so therefore in a
particular case it is true whereas it does not hold in the particular case. For
example, consider that a claim that most students take 16 semestre hours each
semestre does not imply that Mr. Y is taking sixteen hours.
The
fallacy of Converse Accident, or a
hasty generalisation, is such that
one argues that a property holds for an individual case or class of cases,
therefore it holds in general. This is the fallacy of inductive reasoning since
there is no guarantee that there is any reason for generalisation.[16]
The
fallacy of False Cause is such that
one argues a particular causal effect from a given set of premises and a causal
connection to a conclusion, which in fact erroneously connects the premises and
conclusion. The most common example is when a researcher does not understand
statistics and logic and notes that X preceded Y, there is a connection between
the two (often a property called linear correlation), and thus X caused Y.
The
fallacy of Complex Question occurs
when a complex question is posed such that a yes or no answer is given, but
there remains a part (not posed) of the complex question assumed a priori answered which was not
answered. There are many types of
complex questions, but a type which stands out is one where much
previous is inferred. For example, ”Are
you in favour of pulling out of Afghanistan and letting Al Qaeda and the
Taliban rape the country again?”
The
fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi, or irrelevant
conclusion, is one where a person argues a given set of premises support a
particular conclusion but the premises force a different conclusion. However,
the argument may be so emotionally or psychologically appealing as to render
the audience willing to agree that the proposed conclusion follows from the
premises.
The
fallacy of Ambiguity is a fallacious
argument form relying on an ambiguous word or phrase which causes the argument
to be fallacious with the shift in meaning of the word or phrase. There are at
least five ways the fallacy of ambiguity can be committed: through
equivocation, amphibole, accent, composition, or division. An example would be
all beds are made. All maids are skirted.
Thus, all beds are skirted. In writing it is clearly fallacious, but in
sound it could be misunderstood.
Reviewing
this short list of fallacies helps us to understand that rhetoric as opposed to
proper logic is fraught with problems.
It is not the job of the mathematician to convince, influence, persuade,
etc. An argument properly constructed should do it (suffice).[17]
[1] We will drop the quotation marks when it is understood that we are referencing a symbol rather that a letter. Often this is difficult to do; for example, suppose one wants to use the variable “a” and they wish to reference a particular one of the a’s. It would be a problem to say let us consider a a. Hopefully, this will not occur in this text.
[2] We will rigorous discuss the theory of sets in chapter 2. Suffice it to say, I am assuming that you had some basic introduction to arithmetic and we are not moving beyond the scope of our introduction to logic by discussing these basic sets. When introducing an area of mathematics to a student, it is oft times difficult because each student enters the course with some prior introduction to the area (whether it be a correct introduction or an incorrect introduction; more on this comment later).
[3] This will be made clear in Math 255, Set Theory.
[4] This is obvious, but let’s take a closer look. Note P Ú ØP is logically equivalent to ØP Ú P which by the or form into implication form is P Þ P !!!! Now, if anyone (usually in the Humanities or Social Sciences) says the Law of the Excluded Middle is an antiquated, outdated, or invalid law ask them, “ ‘If - - - -, then - - - -‘ [fill in the blank] is a fallacy?”
[5] By the same token note that Ø(P Ú ØP) is logically equivalent to ØP Ù Ø(ØP) which is ØP Ù P which is
P Ù ØP. Since ØP Ú P is always true it must be the case that P Ù ØP is always false.
[6] Recall F Þ T is true as well as F Þ F is true.
[7] A statement is neither valid nor invalid. We are not assigning truth values to statements exclusive of the opposing possibility.
[8] Technically assumed to be true or agreed to be true since they cannot be proven true.
[9] My favourite method. Note: this does not imply it will be yours or that you should always attempt to prove a claim using this method. I am simply noting it is my favourite method for your edification.
[10] See chapter 2 for a definition of real, irrational, rational, etc. numbers
[11] This method is hard to write out & explain, but I believe you will find it the easiest to do and through the doing will understand it better.
[12] For example, in real analysis we have the trichotomy law which state that any real number x must be either less than zero, equal to zero, or greater than zero and never more than one of these at any time. So, many times one considers a general w (a real) and does three cases (case 1: w < 0; case 2: w = 0; and, case 3: w > 0).
[13] Note this is direct proof (2) technique in the (Þ) direction.
[14] Note this is direct proof (3) technique in the (Ü) direction (so different methods can be employed in each direction).
[15] Since I have a Ph.D. in Statistics, suffice it to say that this bothers me. Statistics do not prove a thing; statistics only demonstrates evidence to suggest something.
[16] This should be distinguished from the valid method of proof called mathematical induction, which DOES prove a general claim.
[17] Note should does not imply would. Whilst it is the case that a properly constructed argument (proof) cannot be denied, it is also the case that humans are full of contradiction, biases, etc. Thus, we shall see that in mathematics as opposed to the “real world” our arguments will stand on their own. Such cannot be said about life in general or in particular.